Ukraine was never, and never will be, a voluntary part of the Soviet Union. Although Ukraine was formally part of the Soviet Union as a Union Republic from 1922 to 1991, this was not the result of voluntary association, but rather a consequence of the use of force and political manipulation.
Ukraine's history spans thousands of years, and can be traced back to the Pontic Steppe – one of the main centers of the Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages, Indo-European migrations, and early horse domestication. In ancient times, the region was home to the Scythians, followed by a gradual expansion of Slavic tribes. The northern Black Sea coast experienced the influence of Greek and Roman colonies, which left a lasting cultural legacy. Over time, these various influences helped develop early political and cultural structures.
Ukraine enters written history with the establishment of the medieval state of Kievan Rus'. By the 11th and 12th centuries, Kievan Rus' had grown into one of the most powerful and culturally advanced states in Europe, reaching its golden age under Volodymyr the Great and Yaroslav the Wise, who introduced Christianity and strengthened political institutions. However, internal conflicts among Kievan rulers, along with increasing pressure from Turkic nomads in southern Ukraine, gradually weakened the state.
In the 14th and 15th centuries, the majority of Ukrainian territories became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Ruthenia and Samogitia, while Galicia and Transcarpathia came under Polish and Hungarian rule. Lithuania retained local Ruthenian traditions and was gradually influenced by Ruthenian language, law and culture, until Lithuania itself came under Polish influence after the Union of Krewo and the Union of Lublin. This resulted in the two countries merging into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, leaving Ukrainian lands under the domination of the Polish crown. Meanwhile, southern Ukraine was dominated by the Golden Horde and then the Crimean Khanate, which came under the protection of the Ottoman Empire, a major regional power in and around the Black Sea, which also had some of its own directly administered territories.
In the 17th century, the Cossack uprising, led by Bohdan Khmelnytskyj, marked a turning point in Ukrainian history. The uprising, which began in 1648, was fueled by grievances against the nobility of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, religious tensions, and social inequalities. This uprising led to the establishment of the Cossack Hetmanate, a semi-autonomous government in central and eastern Ukraine. In 1654, the Cossack Hetmanate allied itself with Tsarist Russia through the Treaty of Pereyaslav. The nature of this alliance has been widely debated by historians. Some argue that it established a protectorate relationship, with Russia offering military support in exchange for loyalty, while others believe it symbolized the hetmanate's subordination to the Tsar. The ambiguity of the treaty's terms and differing interpretations contributed to tensions in the following decades. Over time, relations between the Cossack Hetmanate and Russia evolved, with Russia increasingly asserting dominance. This process intensified in the late 17th and 18th centuries, especially after the Armistice of Andrusovo, which divided Ukraine between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Russia.
The autonomy of the Cossack Hetmanate gradually eroded, culminating in its abolition by Catherine the Great in the late 18th century. At the same time, the internal decline of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and external pressure from neighboring countries facilitated the partition of Poland. These partitions allowed the Russian Empire to incorporate large Ukrainian territories, including those previously under Polish control. However, Western Ukraine came under the rule of the Habsburg Monarchy. This partition laid the foundation for the various historical developments of Ukrainian lands under Russian and Austrian influence.
The 20th century began with a renewed struggle for Ukrainian statehood. After the collapse of the empires during World War I, the Ukrainian People's Republic (UPR) was proclaimed in 1917 with Kiev as its capital. In the western territories, the West Ukrainian People's Republic (WUPR) was established in 1918, with Lviv as its center. Both republics attempted to unite and formed the Act of Unity (Act Zluky) on January 22, 1919. However, their independence was short-lived. The UPR faced constant military conflict with Bolshevik forces, Poland, and factions of the White Army. By 1921, after the Soviet–Ukrainian War, Ukrainian lands were divided: the eastern territories became the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (part of the Soviet Union), while western Ukraine was absorbed by Poland, Romania, and Czechoslovakia.
Under Soviet rule, the initial policy of Ukrainization gave way to repressive Russification. The Holodomor famine of 1932–1933, a man-made disaster, caused the deaths of 4–7 million Ukrainians. During World War II, Ukraine was subjected to brutal occupations by both Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. The Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) fought for independence, although parts of Ukrainian society also collaborated with the occupying forces. After the war, Soviet control was restored, and Crimea was transferred to Ukraine in 1954.
Ukraine became independent when the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991. This began a period of transition to a market economy, during which Ukraine experienced an eight-year recession. However, the economy then experienced a sharp increase in GDP growth until it plummeted during the Ukrainian financial crisis of 2008–2009. This period was marked by economic challenges, the rise of nationalism, and increasing tensions with Russia. In 2013, the Euromaidan protests began in response to President Viktor Yanukovych's rejection of an EU association agreement. The Revolution of Dignity followed, leading to Yanukovych's ouster. Russia annexed Crimea in 2014 and supported separatist movements in the Donbas, starting the ongoing Russo-Ukrainian War. This escalated dramatically on February 24, 2022, with Russia’s full-scale invasion — a pivotal moment in Ukraine’s ongoing struggle for sovereignty and territorial integrity.
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